Zanzibar’s History
Zanzibar, the principal port and commercial hub of the Zanzibar Archipelago, is situated just off the East African coastline. Its golden age occurred in the 19th century, when its economic influence extended deep into the African mainland. The town originated as a Swahili fishing settlement in the 12th century on the Shangani Peninsula on Unguja Island’s western side. By the mid-16th century, Portuguese explorers arrived, establishing a strategic base by 1591. This marked the beginning of European influence in the region, though it’s history was shaped by a complex interplay of local, Arab, and foreign powers.
Over the following century, it was governed by local rulers under Portuguese hegemony. The Portuguese sought control of the Indian Ocean trade routes, leveraging Zanzibar’s strategic location. However, their dominance was challenged by the rising power of Oman in the late 17th century. Zanzibar became a battleground in Portuguese-Omani rivalry, leading to the town being destroyed twice. By approximately 1698, the Omani forces, led by Sultan Barghash ibn Said, emerged victorious. They built a fort on the ruins of a Portuguese chapel—a structure still standing today—a symbol of Omani authority. The fort housed a small garrison, cementing Omani control over the region.
Queen Fatuma, the indigenous ruler of northern Unguja, was exiled until 1709. Her successor, Sultan Hassan, is celebrated as the true founder of Zanzibar. In the early 1720s, he cleared the Shangani Peninsula of brush, laying the groundwork for urban development. This act marked the transition from a small fishing village to a nascent town.
Over subsequent decades, Arab merchants and plantation owners from Pate and Shatiri Arabs from Mafia Island settled in Zanzibar. Their wealth was fueled by the transoceanic slave trade, which supplied labor to French colonies like Mauritius (Ile-de-France) and Réunion (Ile Bourbon). By the late 18th century, Zanzibar’s economy boomed, though most buildings remained modest, constructed with materials like coral and timber.
The Busa’idi rulers of Oman recognized Zanzibar’s potential as a trade hub. In 1840, Sultan Seyyid Said relocated his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, signaling its rise to regional prominence. From this base, the Busa’idi dynasty orchestrated caravans deep into the African interior, reaching present-day Zambia and Congo, to extract ivory and slaves. By mid-century, Zanzibar’s influence stretched across East Africa to Lake Tanganyika, though its control was commercial rather than political. Annual exports through Zanzibar surged from $765,000 in 1843 to $3.7 million by 1864, dominated by ivory, copal, cowrie shells, and hides.
Simultaneously, Zanzibar’s rulers turned to agriculture. By the 1820s, clove plantations emerged on Unguja and Pemba, cultivated by enslaved labor from the mainland. By 1859, five million pounds of cloves were exported annually, making Zanzibar a global spice powerhouse. The slave trade reached its peak in the mid-19th century, with up to 20,000 enslaved Africans arriving annually. Most were retained on the islands to work plantations, while others were shipped to coastal East Africa, India, or the Middle East.
Zanzibar’s wealth was etched into its architecture. Stone Town, built during this era, showcased grand Arab-style homes with elaborately carved doors, symbols of status. Sultan Bargash (1870–1888) commissioned the Beit al-Ajaob (“House of Wonder”), a massive structure completed in 1883 that still dominates the coastline. Meanwhile, Indian Muslims increasingly dominated trade, their population growing from 214 in 1819 to over 3,000 by the 1870s. They replaced Arab merchants as financiers of the caravan trade, constructing homes with Indian-inspired balconies and carvings. Less affluent Indians lived above shops in central streets, forming a bustling commercial core.
South of the Shangani Peninsula, Ng’ambo (“the other side”) emerged as Zanzibar’s African residential area. Initially a small community of enslaved Africans surrounded by farmland, it expanded rapidly after 1850. By 1895, it had 15 wards and 15,000 residents, including freed laborers, Indian traders, and Malagasy settlers. By 1922, Ng’ambo’s population surpassed Stone Town’s, reflecting its role as a hub for working-class Swahili and migrant communities.
European involvement intensified in the mid-19th century. The U.S. appointed a consul in 1837, followed by Britain, whose diplomatic presence grew significantly. Explorers like Richard Francis Burton, David Livingstone, and Henry Morton Stanley used Zanzibar as a base for African expeditions. The Anglican Church established a mission in 1879, building a church on the former slave market site. However, European colonization of the mainland eroded Zanzibar’s dominance. British encroachment culminated in the 1890 Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, which declared Zanzibar a British protectorate.
British rule brought decline. In 1896, Zanzibar faced bombardment during a succession crisis after Sultan Hamid’s death. Modern ports on the mainland siphoned trade away, leaving Zanzibar reliant on cloves and coconut products. A 1929 wharf catered to a shrinking domestic market. Colonial projects like the High Court’s “Saracenic”-style architecture and the 1950 creek reclamation altered the landscape but did little to revive the economy.
Independence came in December 1963, but stability was short-lived. Within a month, a revolution led by Ugandan mercenary John Okello overthrew Sultan Jamshid, who was exiled. The revolution, marked by the storming of police stations like Ziwani and Mtoni, triggered an exodus of Arabs and Indians, who feared retribution. Stone Town’s homes were nationalized, many abandoned or occupied by officials. Ng’ambo, however, grew rapidly, with Swahili housing and Soviet-style flats constructed in the 1970s. By 1978, Zanzibar’s population reached 111,000, reflecting rural-to-urban migration and regional instability.
In 1988, Stone Town was declared a conservation area, and its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 spurred restoration efforts. Tourism emerged as a lifeline, funding projects to preserve coral buildings and Swahili architecture. However, the influx of visitors strained infrastructure, and debates over commercialization arose. Despite challenges, Stone Town’s blend of Arab, Indian, and African influences—seen in its winding alleys, carved doors, and spice markets—draws global attention.
Today, Zanzibar remains a bustling commercial center, though its economic reliance on tourism and cloves leaves it vulnerable to global market shifts. Migrants continue to arrive from rural areas and the mainland, seeking opportunity in a city that has weathered centuries of change. Its layered history—a mosaic of Swahili, Arab, Indian, and European influences—ensures Zanzibar’s enduring cultural significance.
Also read: The Incredible Evolution of Trade in Precolonial Zambia
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