Nubian Kingdoms
Nubian kingdoms: When the Kushite state fell apart in the fourth century CE, the Nubians took over as new rulers. They divided into three states by the sixth century: ‘Alwa, Nobadia, and Makurra. Faras, the capital of Nobadia, had been a significant city for thousands of years. This was different from Soba (Soba East) and Dongola (now called Old Dongola to differentiate it from the current city 120 kilometers to the north), which were the capitals of ‘Alwa and Makurra.
At Dongola, a bark stand with the name Taharqo (690–664 BCE) was discovered. At Soba, researchers discovered a granite statue base, a capital featuring the head of Hathor, and two criosphinxes, one adorned with Meroitic hieroglyphs. However, it looks like the foundations of both of these towns are relatively new and don’t go back to the early days of the Nubian kingdoms.
The first building to prove that people lived in Dongola is the huge defense wall that was built on the hill with a view of the Nile. Pottery found nearby indicates that this wall dates to the early sixth century. We can date the remains of round wooden huts from around the same time at Soba.
Since neither site has pottery or other ancient artifacts, we must assume that the Kushite monumental sculptures and inscribed blocks originated elsewhere. Dongola is well-positioned to defend itself because it has a great view of the Nile and can easily control river traffic. It’s also where trade lines from Darfur in the west and Kordofan in the southwest meet the Nile.
An ancient Nile route forms a fertile basin known as Letti, directly next to the town to the north. Determining the reason behind the selection of Soba is a challenging task. It is located on the right side of the Blue Nile, 22 kilometers upstream from where the Blue and White Niles meet in what is now Khartoum. The plains around Soba don’t seem to favor this site over others nearby, and the Wadi Soba, which is right next to it, isn’t a big part of the scenery either.
Wallace Budge said he found evidence of a defensive wall and gate when he dug on the site in 1903, but more research has not shown this to be true. Arab sources, which frequently discuss attacks on the town, and the extensive and ongoing excavations at the site, started in 1964 by the Polish Mediterranean Research Center, give a general idea of Dongola’s history.
On the other hand, Arab sources rarely mention Soba because it is much farther to the south. The excavations have also been much less extensive. The early inhabitants of Dongola likely prioritized defense, but by the late sixth century, they had constructed large buildings outside the walls in the plain to the north. When an Arab army attacked the town in 652 and burned at least one of these churches, it broke the false sense of security that this gave people.
But after the war was over, the town grew to the north and finally covered an area 2.8 kilometers long and 0.9 kilometers wide, though not all of it may have been densely populated. Churches and temples were the most important buildings in the town. The town and the kingdom it was the center of were very active, as shown by the large churches that were often torn down and rebuilt on a bigger and bigger scale.
The throne hall of the kings is an impressive two-story building that is about 10 meters tall and dates from the height of its use in the Classic Christian period (85–1100). Other fine homes also date from this era. When Ibn Selim el Aswani went to ‘Alwa around 970, he said that it had “fine buildings and large monasteries, churches rich with gold, and gardens.”
Within the town, Abu Salih wrote in the 1100s that there was “a very large and spacious church, skillfully planned and constructed. They dubbed it the Church of Manbali. In the 1980s, the British Institute in Eastern Africa dug up the remains of three of these churches. Two of them are about the same size and style as the best churches known to exist in Dongola.
Both towns clearly shared similar art traditions, but it’s unclear whether one directly influenced the other or which was the more significant participant in this cultural exchange. Researchers have found five churches at Soba, as well as a big palace. The palace was probably the home of the archbishop of Soba, or the king, since it was so close to the three churches. David was king of ‘Alwa and possibly ruled from 99 to 1015. The building housed his marble tombstone.
In the early Middle Ages, when it covered 2.75 square kilometers, Soba seems to have been at its biggest. Later, it became less nucleated, but the population may have stayed the same.
The fall of Dongola happened at the same time that Makurra became generally poor. This was because of constant attacks from the north that started in the late 1100s and destroyed many of the important buildings, possibly made worse by earthquake damage. In 1317, the throne hall underwent a transformation into a mosque, and the first Muslim ruler assumed the throne in 1323.
Before the end of that century, the city stopped being the capital of Makurra because the royal court moved to Derr, a town in the north. Our understanding of the disintegration of ‘Alwa and the destruction of Soba remains significantly limited.
However, excavations inside one of the main churches revealed that squatters had already occupied it in the 1100s, stealing valuable Christian graves at that time. David Reubeni, a tourist, went through the town in 1523. He reported that the people lived in simple huts, with the nice buildings long gone.
Also Read: Nubia’s Incredible Relationship with Ancient Egypt, 7th–14th Century
