Mapungubwe Kingdom
By the ninth century, Arab traders from Yemen and the Persian Gulf, along with Swahili coastal merchants, expanded their trade networks along Africa’s east coast, reaching as far as Chibuene on the Mozambican coast. Their presence had a profound impact on the interior of southern Africa, leading to the development of the region’s first complex state, which later paved the way for Great Zimbabwe.
The most significant site linked to this early state is Mapungubwe, located near the Limpopo River at the modern-day borders of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. However, multiple sites in the region reflect the increasing importance of trade with the East African coast.
The Limpopo Valley was inhabited from the second century, likely by the ancestors of modern Shona speakers, but it was not extensively settled by Iron Age farmers until the eighth century when climate changes made farming more viable. Larger settlements that emerged followed the Central Cattle Pattern, featuring stone huts and kraals (cattle enclosures). One of the earliest excavated sites from this period is Schroda, near Mapungubwe, dating to the ninth century. Archaeological remains at Schroda include imported glass beads and ivory, indicating early trade with the east coast.
By the tenth century, settlements in the Limpopo region became more complex, characterized by larger cattle herds and distinct pottery styles. This shift is evident at Leopard’s Kopje, a site near modern-day Bulawayo, dated to 980. The term “Leopard’s Kopje” is often used to describe a Later Iron Age phase spanning from 1000 to 1300, including the peak of Mapungubwe’s power.
These developments signal the beginnings of a more complex social hierarchy, driven by an emerging gold trade. Gold was abundant in alluvial and surface deposits on the Zimbabwean plateau but was largely ignored by local populations until Arab traders along the East African coast expressed interest in it. The start of this trade can be precisely dated, as it was recorded by the Arabian chronicler Al-Masudi in 916.
By the late tenth century, people of the Leopard’s Kopje culture had established a settlement at Bambandyanalo (also called K2) at the base of Mapungubwe hill. Large quantities of cattle bones found at the site confirm the significance of cattle in their society. Imported glass beads, found throughout the site’s layers, highlight an active and sustained trade with the coast. Bambandyanalo also provides evidence of specialized craft industries, including ivory bracelet production and spindle whorls.
By 1075, part of the community relocated to the top of Mapungubwe hill, a move believed to reflect growing social stratification. The ruling and religious elite occupied the hilltop, symbolizing their elevated status, while the majority of the population, along with livestock, lived at the base. Archaeological findings from the hilltop include richly adorned burials and structures with elaborate stone walls, more advanced than those at Bambandyanalo. One of the most famous artifacts recovered from Mapungubwe is the gold rhinoceros, a testament to the site’s wealth and craftsmanship.
Over 100 skeletons have been unearthed from Mapungubwe, making it the largest collection of Iron Age human remains found in southern Africa. Most individuals were buried in a flexed position alongside material goods such as beads, bangles, and pottery shards, further illustrating social hierarchy and wealth distribution.
Mapungubwe evolved into a centralized state by the late tenth century, extending its influence across the Zimbabwean plateau and parts of modern Botswana. Many smaller settlements in the region followed a similar layout to Mapungubwe, indicating a structured hierarchy of settlements modeled after the capital. This pattern is comparable to the settlement hierarchy seen at Toutswemogala.
The rise of Mapungubwe was closely linked to control over trade, particularly in gold and ivory. To sustain its power, the ruling elite needed control over internal resources such as cattle while dominating external trade networks.
Those who managed the production and distribution of key trade goods accumulated the wealth and resources necessary to assert political power, leading to a more rigidly hierarchical society. The emergence of social stratification was essential for state formation, as states require more permanent institutions than chiefdoms.
Beyond economic power, Mapungubwe’s rulers reinforced their authority through symbolic and religious means. Archaeological analyses of space usage suggest that the leaders combined secular governance with sacred authority. A religious elite played a crucial role in maintaining the social order, ensuring the continuity of the state’s structure through ritual and ideology.
By the thirteenth century, Mapungubwe began to decline, likely due to its loss of control over the gold trade. Arab merchants relocated further north along the East African coast, forging direct trade relationships with a newly emerging state on the Zimbabwean plateau—Great Zimbabwe. As a result, Mapungubwe’s economic and political dominance faded, making way for the rise of its powerful successor.
Also Read: The Great Empires in Zimbabwe
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